Background and Objective: High population growth rate has led to excessive use of capacity and double pressure on natural resources, resulting in rapid land use changes. Therefore, quick and accurate identification of types of land cover can play an effective role in planning and management. Satellite data because of vast and integrated sight covering with different electromagnetic spectrums and updated images are very suitable for making applicable Land use maps. The aim of this study is preparation of land use map using ETM+ landsat (a Case Study in Hendodar Watershed) Method: The Landsat 7 satellite images were used to determine the land use changes of Hendodar Watershed in Markazi province. The GPS was used to determine the position of land use and land cover types on the basis of taking test and ground control points on field investigation. Obtained samples were used for supervised classification with four different algorithms including maximum Likelihood, minimum distance, Minimum Mahalanobis Distance and Box Classification. Findings: The optimum index factor (OIF) for the main bands and PCA (principal coordinate analysis) were used to select the optimum combination of three bands in a satellite image to create a color composite, sample set and other operation and classification. Among the algorithms, the maximum likelihood classification algorithm had better results from the types of coverage and lands use on the images. Discussion and Conclusion: The maximum likelihood classification algorithm with combination of b7, b4, b1 bands with 81. 25% accuracy is the best algorithms of land use determination and classification comparing with real ground map of the area.

Introduction In many regions, ecosystem sustainability and environmental security have become more fragile. Because Watersheds are dynamic systems, their hydrological function and health are constantly changing under the influence of land use, climate change, and human interventions. Since the destruction of the ecosystems of a Watershed has harmful economic and social consequences, in recent decades there has been a general tendency to evaluate the relative conditions or health of Watersheds on a national and local scale. Ecologists have paid special attention to the study of how natural resource ecosystems respond to different types of stress caused by human activities. The Watershed sustainability index (WSI) can be considered as an effective tool in Watershed management including priorities monitoring changes and influencing factors on ecosystem management. In recent years, various studies and plans have been conducted to preserve natural resources and achieve sustainable development. The sustainability of Watersheds includes four important goals of regulating the water flow regime, maintaining and improving water quality, maintaining the ecological quality of plants and animals, and energy resources. In this context, the pressure-state-response (PSR) model has been introduced and used for a comprehensive assessment of the health of an ecosystem. The conceptual model of PSR was developed using a set of criteria expressing environmental performance. This study aimed to evaluate the sustainability level of the Bujin Watershed.   Materials and methods One of the methods for evaluating Watershed sustainability is the use of the conceptual pressure-state-response model (PSR). Applying the causal-effect PSR model using theWSI criteria in the form of four sub-criteria of hydrology (qualitative and quantitative), environment, life, and policy-making, one can evaluate the sustainability of the Watershed numerically. In this method, considering the available data and information to investigate each sub-criteria, the parameter values are determined in three modes of pressure, state, and response, and in the scoring range from zero to one, five categories are converted to quantitative mode. Therefore, the PSR framework has three types of criteria: pressure criteria that evaluate environmental pressure resulting from human activities (waste, sewage), and state criteria that express environmental conditions (water quality). and the response criteria that evaluate the society's reactions (water quality) and the response criteria that evaluate the society's responses (policies, laws, management). The sub-criteria and parameters used in this research were determined based on the index selection criteria published by the HCTF Habitat Protection Fund in 2003. Sub-criteria were investigated based on three conceptual model parameters in 10 years for the Bujin Watershed. The WSI criteria were calculated at three low, medium, and high levels to assess the Watershed sustainability.   Results and Discussion According to the results, the value of the pressure parameter and the quantitative status of the basin's hydrology in terms of available water variable is in class (C), i.e. in the range of 3400 > AW > 1700, which is a poor condition. The average scores were obtained for the water quality part (0.583), which shows the average to low status. The average score for the hydrology sub-criterion was 0.375, which indicates a poor situation in this region. The values of pressure, state, and response parameters for the sub-criterion of life in the Bujin Watershed, during the 10 years studied, indicate a change in the state from weak to moderate. The results also showed that the pressure parameter with a score of 0.75 and the response parameter with a score of 0.625 had the highest and lowest scores for evaluating the sustainability of the Bujin Watershed, respectively, indicating an appropriate response to reduce the pressure applied to the ecosystems. Sub-hydrology index with a score of 0.16 and environment with a score of 1 had the lowest and highest priority for the management of the basin ecosystem. According to the distribution maps of the criterion for evaluating Watershed sustainability in conventional Watershed systems during the period (2006-2016), the standard level of Watershed sustainability at the beginning of the period was lower than the middle class (score 0.59) and in the middle of the period was in the middle class (score 0.62) and for the end of the period, it was upgraded to the upper than the middle class (score 0.7).   Conclusion The priorities of achieving sustainable development (the priority in improving the conditions to promote the level of sustainability and achieve sustainable development) are different, and it is important to know which sub-criterion should be improved first and which parameter the decision-makers should pay attention to avoid wasting time, money and energy, and to take faster development steps in an area. Evaluation of relative conditions of Watershed sustainability using the PSR model is very useful for providing appropriate management strategies because according to the nature of the conceptual model, a specific dimension of Watershed health is explained. Bujin Watershed has an unstable condition in the sub-index of hydrology and a good condition in the sub-index of life and human development, although, for this Watershed, obtaining a score of 0.7 for WSI criteria in the whole Watershed showed that the level of Watershed sustainability in the 10 years is in the middle class and it is necessary to pay more attention to improve the level of sustainability and health of the Watershed.

Introduction: Increasing the atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration is a major cause of climate change that has led to degradation in natural ecosystems and incidence of various environmental problems such as imbalances in hydrologic, nutrients, and carbon cycles in nature. Land surface cover, which has an important role in carbon sequestration, has been strongly influenced by human activities and gradually degraded over time and created a number of challenges in the behavior of Watersheds. Therefore, worldwide rehabilitation and restoration of Watersheds through the implementation of a variety of mechanical and biological measures have been considered by policymakers, managers, and technical experts. For instance, various Watershed management projects (tree sapling, permanent forage cultivation, and terracing) have been implemented with the participation of stakeholders to improve conditions in the Dehchenashk sub-Watershed of the Chehl-Chai Watershed, where is considered as the most critically degraded Watershed of the Golestan Province, northeastern Iran. Therefore, this research was carried out to evaluate the effects of land cover and various management measures on the amount of carbon sequestration in surface soil layer through a comparative analysis between two sub-Watersheds of Dehchenashk (treatment) and Chamanie-bala (control). Material and methods: In the present study, the effect of management measures on carbon sequestration in areas under management measures (treatment) and types of land use (forest, croplands, and orchards) was studied. The croplands and orchards as controls and terracing and tree saplings activities (biological measures) as the treatment measures were compared in terms of carbon sequestration. Sampling was conducted using randomly selected plots along the defined transects. Within each plot, above-ground biomass was measured for crops and trees. Also, the effect of management measures on improving land cover and reducing soil erosion from viewpoints of the local stakeholders was carried out using the questionnaire survey. Results and discussion: The results showed that the average of biomass carbon sequestration (ton/ha) in both treatment and control sub-Watersheds in dense (5. 10 and 4. 91), low-density (4. 98 and 4. 80), and degraded forests (4. 27, 95 and 95) was more than walnut (Juglans regia) (3. 08 and 2. 85) and apple (Malus pumila) (2. 21 and 2. 00) orchards, and croplands cultivated with alfalfa (Medicago sativa) (1. 55 and 1. 50), wheat (Triticum aestivum) (1. 40 and 1. 32), lentil (Lens culinaris) (1. 38 and 1. 30), and barley (Hordeum vulgare) (1. 26 and 1. 19), respectively. Regarding biological practices carried out in the treatment sub-Watershed, the average carbon sequestration in walnut orchards (2. 72) was higher than pear (Pyrus communis) (1. 88) and cherry (Cerasus avium) (1. 66) orchards and terraced lands cultivated with alfalfa (1. 65), wheat (1. 50) and lentil (1. 40). Also, statistical comparison using T-test between high density, low-density, and degraded forests and apple orchards and barley croplands showed no statistically significant difference at 5% level. The amount of sequestrated biomass carbon in walnut, pear, and cherry orchards and terraced lands cultivated with lentil, alfalfa, and wheat showed significant differences in comparison with the control lands. Moreover, the evaluation of viewpoints of the local stakeholders on the effect of management measures implemented in the Deh-Chanashk sub-Watershed, indicated that they believe that the implemented Watershed management practices have played a significant role in improving the sub-Watershed condition in terms of land cover, soil stabilization, and soil erosion reduction. Conclusion: Therefore, among the Watershed management measures undertaken, extending the orchard plantation, particularly walnut plantation, to croplands on the steep slopes is recommended as a high priority management option across the study region due to higher ability to carbon sequestration as well as soil erosion prevention.

Demand increasing in water resources in Iran has been caused to water exploitation and disturbing the ground water resources balance. In Hormozgan Province that is located in arid region of Iran, there is not balance between demand and supply of water resources. Isin Watershed that is covered 47793.5 ha area, located in the northern part of Persian Gulf. In this Watershed, water supply depends on groundwater resource so has been faced to loss of groundwater level that this losing grows faster and faster. In this study, after collecting information about Watershed management for isin Watershed, identify and analysis of natural features, various states that may happen be with Watershed management or without it, has been projected. Four scenarios developed for this purpose and analysis the results show that, if Watershed management will be done in the isin Watershed, the amounts of infiltrated water into the groundwater will be 1.5 times more than in which time that do not any Watershed management. Accordingly, with implement the Watershed management and artificial recharge operations, the average of rainfall infiltration into the groundwater will be 1.72 mcm per year in dry years and 6.63 mcm per year in wet years.

The biological and mechanical measures adapted to crucial renewable resources (water, vegetation and soil) and sustaining agriculture and soil fertility. However, local inhabitants’ participation is the main challengeable issue, particularly maintaining the constructed Watershed management projects. The objectives of this research were to evaluate the Watershed management measures which constructed through joint project by Forests and Rangelands Organization (FRM) and Middle East and North Africa Regions Program for Integrated Development (MENARID), conducting in Razin, Kermanshah. Each constructed measure was checked and compared with its designed characteristics. Achieving the goal of joint MENARID project through each measure was strongly considered based on adaptation with climate change condition. The results explored that rare parts of induced measures were applied which included the pit-seeding, rain-fed orchard, concreted-stony dam, gabion and dyke. The pit-seeding contributed to increase in vegetation canopy, but there was subjected to early grazing and thus the young palatable species were found in weak phonological growth. The almond orchard is developed in closed rangeland to villages or rain-fed lands. Seedling was planted in a ditch which was excavated by heavy machine. At least 70% of seedlings were dried and no willing to support by local inhabitants due to supplemental irrigation cost and tangible benefit or incomes. Field survey also did not show any necessary requirements (sever erosion, landslide or flood hazard) for concreted-stony and gabion dams. This dyke evaluated the worst measure because of its effects on heavy soil disturbance. Overall, the evaluated measures were found unsuitable and did not overcome land degradation in Razin catchment. In addition, considering the achievement the goal of MENARID, adversely, the improper agricultural activities such as up-down the slope tillage practice, converting rangeland to rain-fed lands, overgrazing, over agricultural inputs (chemical fertilizers, pests and irrigation water) are going ahead.

The aim of this study is to assess the feasibility of monitoring precipitation, temperature and river stage variables in the Chehl-Chai Watershed with the participation of citizens/stakeholders. Simple and low-cost measurement tools were designed and provided to the local volunteers (two students, three women and one man) and they monitored the variables for five months. The data were recorded on paper forms and/or communicated through cellphones (text messages and social media applications of WhatsApp and Telegram). The citizen-collected data were compared with formal gauging stations using different statistical metrics including correlation coefficient, paired-sample t-test and kappa index. Results revealed that, the difference between the recorded data by the participants and those of gauging stations were not statistically significant. A female citizen with academic education of bachelor’s degree recorded the highest frequency of data that had the highest correlation with the recorded data in the formal precipitation and temperature monitoring stations, while the technical staff man from the Natural Resources Management Office recorded the least frequent data that had the least correlation with the recorded data in the formal monitoring stations. In overall, the promising level of citizens’ performance in monitoring the Watershed, suggests that it is really feasible to collect reliable, on-time, and long-term data that can be used to obviate lack of data, particularly in remote mountainous areas and facilitates the decision-making and Watersheds management process.

The system analysis plays an important role in natural resources, water resources and industrial engineering. In recent years, most parts of Iran like Golestan province, due to the lack of integrated river basin management, have been suffered numerous losses in variant environmental, social and economic aspects. In this paper an application of system analysis has been applied to optimal pattern of various resources in Gharmabdasht Watershed situated in Golesten province, Iran. To achieve an optimal allocation of natural resources in this area, firstly a linear programming algorithm has been used to maximize the benefits. Then its results have been compared with an optimal allocation of resources using a goal programming. This comparison shows if a single objective optimization (LP) be formulated correctly, it can be that the proposed pattern, has been acceptable outputs in which be compared to goal programming (GP). The allocation natural resources based on LP method, in addition to reducing %10 of sediment from admissible amount effected by safety flood abatement criterion, has also maximized the beneficiary incoming with %5 plus needful along satisfied all of the goals.

Erosion and sediment Formation is a complex function of different factors, and depending upon regional conditions one or another may be responsible for their intensification. In this research, from among the effective factors on sediment production, land use change was studied in detail. The study area was Taleghan Drainage Basin. Through use of air photos, remote sensing as well as field studies, land use maps of this drainage basin was prepared for years 1970, 1987 and 2000. Then the amount of suspended sediment yield during 1970-1971, 1971-1987 and 1987-2000 were calculated from water discharge-sediment yield data of Taleghan Watershed hydrometric station, located in Galinak. For determination of accuracy of sediment yield data, sediment yield in sub- catchments were calculated using EPM model. Some conclusions are as follows: -Rangelands have been increased by 15% and, dry and agriculture lands decreased by 11.1% and 3.8% respectively. The reasons for these are immigration of young population to nearby cities and climate changes of the basin. -The amount of suspended sediment load has increased during 1970-1987 while being decreased during 1987-2000. The reason for the increase during 1970-1987 is climatic changes such as droughts and wet periods and change in the amount and spread of rainfall. The reasons for the decrease during 1988 to 2000 have been land use as well as climatic changes. The most effective factors in sediment yield of sub-catchments during 1970 to1987 have been water discharge and dry land form of land use. During 1971 to 2000 they have been due to rangeland form of land use and due to precipitation factors.  

The first step in integrated Watershed management is to pay attention to internal factors (strengths and weaknesses) and external factors (opportunities and threats) of the system and provide strategies based on their analysis. The present study will determine the Watershed management plans of the Bazeh-Hovz Watershed. First, the SWOT matrix and tables for identifying strategic indicators of internal and external factors were formed to achieve the present research's goals. After reviewing the reports, visiting the region, and brainstorming with experts, six weaknesses and six strengths were identified as the most important internal factors. Also, six threats and six opportunities were selected as the most important external factors in the SWOT matrix. Next, to complete the SWOT matrix, 12 experts familiar with the region and 25 people from the village councils in the region (3-4 people from each village and randomly) were consulted. In this regard, determining the scores of the factors using a Likert spectrum questionnaire and determining the relative weights of each factor using the hierarchical analysis technique was considered. The results of the survey of 37 experts, experts and residents of the Watershed area of the Watershed about the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats facing the comprehensive management of the Watershed were extracted from the questionnaires. The results showed "pastures and the development of its by-products" with a weight of 0.34, "low income of Watershed residents compared to urban areas" with a weight of 0.37, "underutilized government facilities for rural employment" with a weight of 0.38 and "sectoralism" and multiplicity in decision-making centers of the Watershed" with a weight of 0.35 are the most important strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in the Watershed. Finally, the results showed that the score of internal and external factors is -0.19 and 0.31, respectively, which indicates the superiority of weaknesses and opportunities over strengths and threats. Therefore, a conservative strategy (WO) should be considered in this Watershed. In this regard, rangeland restoration programs with people's participation, flood control measures upstream of the Qanats, and education and extension of the cultivation pattern are suggested.

In the present paper, the performance evaluation of Watershed management measures has been studied in Keshar sub-Watershed using quantitative methods viz. double mass curve, moving average, discharge-duration curve and hydrologic regime analysis. To conduct the study, the daily precipitation and runoff data belonging to pre and post periods of implementation of measures i.e. 1996-1998 and 1998-2001 were collected. The double mass curve showed the positive effects of measures in runoff reduction. The reducing trend in runoff values was also verified by 5-days moving average. Studying the developed discharge-duration curve depicted the obvious reduction in high as well as low discharges and an extension in flow duration. Achieving a gradual slow in hydrologic response of the Watershed was also confirmed with the help of hydrologic regime analysis. In overall the well performance of the implemented Watershed management activities was quantitatively approved by applying the aforesaid techniques.